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Dismissed in March by the Drexel Institute in Philadelphia for again using a fully nude male model, he gradually withdrew from teaching by Eakins has been credited with having "introduced the camera to the American art studio". In the late s, Eakins was introduced to the photographic motion studies of Eadweard Muybridge , particularly the equine studies , and became interested in using the camera to study sequential movement. After Eakins obtained a camera in , several paintings, such as Mending the Net and Arcadia , are known to have been derived at least in part from his photographs.
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Some figures appear to be detailed transcriptions and tracings from the photographs by some device like a magic lantern , which Eakins then took pains to cover up with oil paint. Eakins' methods appear to be meticulously applied, and rather than shortcuts, were likely used in a quest for accuracy and realism.
An excellent example of Eakins' use of this new technology is his painting A May Morning in the Park , which relied heavily on photographic motion studies to depict the true gait of the four horses pulling the coach of patron Fairman Rogers. But in typical fashion, Eakins also employed wax figures and oil sketches to get the final effect he desired.
The so-called "Naked Series", which began in , were nude photos of students and professional models which were taken to show real human anatomy from several specific angles, and were often hung and displayed for study at the school.
Later, less regimented poses were taken indoors and out, of men, women, and children, including his wife. The most provocative, and the only ones combining males and females, were nude photos of Eakins and a female model see below. Although witnesses and chaperones were usually on site, and the poses were mostly traditional in nature, the sheer quantity of the photos and Eakins' overt display of them may have undermined his standing at the Academy.
I will never have to give up painting, for even now I could paint heads good enough to make a living anywhere in America. For Eakins, portraiture held little interest as a means of fashionable idealization or even simple verisimilitude. Instead, it provided the opportunity to reveal the character of an individual through the modeling of solid anatomical form. But his total output of some two hundred and fifty portraits is characterized by "an uncompromising search for the unique human being".
Often this search for individuality required that the subject be painted in his own daily working environment. Eakins' Portrait of Professor Benjamin H. Rand was a prelude to what many consider his most important work. Samuel D. Gross , is seen presiding over an operation to remove part of a diseased bone from a patient's thigh. Gross lectures in an amphitheater crowded with students at Jefferson Medical College.
Eakins spent nearly a year on the painting, again choosing a novel subject, the discipline of modern surgery, in which Philadelphia was in the forefront. He initiated the project and may have had the goal of a grand work befitting a showing at the Centennial Exposition of Army Post Hospital.
In sharp contrast, another Eakins submission, The Chess Players , was accepted by the Committee and was much admired at the Centennial Exhibition, and critically praised. Eakins' high expectations at the start of the project were recorded in a letter, "What elates me more is that I have just got a new picture blocked in and it is very far better than anything I have ever done. Eakins borrowed it for subsequent exhibitions, where it drew strong reactions, such as that of the New York Daily Tribune , which both acknowledged and damned its powerful image, "but the more one praises it, the more one must condemn its admission to a gallery where men and women of weak nerves must be compelled to look at it.
For not to look it is impossible No purpose is gained by this morbid exhibition, no lesson taught—the painter shows his skill and the spectators' gorge rises at it—that is all. In , Eakins completed a portrait of Dr. Done in a more informal setting than The Gross Clinic , it was a personal favorite of Eakins, and The Art Journal proclaimed "it is in every respect a more favorable example of this artist's abilities than his much-talked-of composition representing a dissecting room. Other outstanding examples of his portraits include The Agnew Clinic , [53] Eakins' most important commission and largest painting, which depicted another eminent American surgeon, Dr.
James W. Holland, and Professor Leslie W. Miller , portraits of educators standing as if addressing an audience; a portrait of Frank Hamilton Cushing c. Rowland , a brilliant scientist whose study of spectroscopy revolutionized his field; [55] Antiquated Music , [56] in which Mrs. William D. Frishmuth is shown seated amidst her collection of musical instruments; and The Concert Singer —92 , [57] for which Eakins asked Weda Cook to sing "O rest in the Lord", so that he could study the muscles of her throat and mouth.
To replicate the proper deployment of a baton , Eakins enlisted an orchestral conductor to pose for the hand seen in the lower left-hand corner of the painting. Of Eakins' later portraits, many took as their subjects women who were friends or students. Unlike most portrayals of women at the time, they are devoid of glamor and idealization. She is a substantial presence, a vision quite different from the era's fashionable portraiture.
So, too, his Portrait of Maud Cook , where the obvious beauty of the subject is noted with "a stark objectivity". The portrait of Miss Amelia Van Buren c. Some of his most vivid portraits resulted from a late series done for the Catholic clergy, which included paintings of a cardinal, archbishops, bishops, and monsignors. As usual, most of the sitters were engaged at Eakins' request, and were given the portraits when Eakins had completed them. Turner c. Deeply affected by his dismissal from the Academy, Eakins focused his later career on portraiture, such as his Portrait of Professor William S.
His steadfast insistence on his own vision of realism, in addition to his notoriety from his school scandals, combined to hurt his income in later years. Even as he approached these portraits with the skill of a highly trained anatomist , what is most noteworthy is the intense psychological presence of his sitters. However, it was precisely for this reason that his portraits were often rejected by the sitters or their families. His portrait of Walt Whitman — was the poet's favorite.
Eakins' lifelong interest in the figure, nude or nearly so, took several thematic forms.
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The rowing paintings of the early s constitute the first series of figure studies. In Eakins' largest picture on the subject, The Biglin Brothers Turning the Stake , the muscular dynamism of the body is given its fullest treatment. In the painting William Rush and His Model , he painted the female nude as integral to a historical subject, even though there is no evidence that the model who posed for Rush did so in the nude. The Centennial Exhibition of helped foster a revival in interest in Colonial America and Eakins participated with an ambitious project employing oil studies, wax and wood models, and finally the portrait in William Rush was a celebrated Colonial sculptor and ship carver, a revered example of an artist-citizen who figured prominently in Philadelphia civic life, and a founder of the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts where Eakins had started teaching.
Despite his sincerely depicted reverence for Rush, Eakins' treatment of the human body once again drew criticism.
This time it was the nude model and her heaped-up clothes depicted front and center, with Rush relegated to the deep shadows in the left background, that stirred dissatisfaction. Nonetheless, Eakins found a subject that referenced his native city and an earlier Philadelphia artist, and allowed for an assay on the female nude seen from behind. When he returned to the subject many years later, the narrative became more personal: In William Rush and His Model , gone are the chaperon and detailed interior of the earlier work. The professional distance between sculptor and model has been eliminated, and the relationship has become intimate.
In one version of the painting from that year, the nude is seen from the front, being helped down from the model stand by an artist who bears a strong resemblance to Eakins. The Swimming Hole —85 features Eakins' finest studies of the nude, in his most successfully constructed outdoor picture. Although there are photographs by Eakins which relate to the painting, the picture's powerful pyramidal composition and sculptural conception of the individual bodies are completely distinctive pictorial resolutions.
In the late s Eakins returned to the male figure, this time in a more urban setting. Taking the Count , a painting of a prizefight, was his second largest canvas, but not his most successful composition. More successful was Between Rounds , for which boxer Billy Smith posed seated in his corner at Philadelphia's Arena; in fact, all the principal figures were posed by models re-enacting what had been an actual fight. Although Eakins was agnostic, he painted The Crucifixion in Eakins's selection of this subject has puzzled some art historians who, unable to reconcile what appears to be an anomalous religious image by a reputedly agnostic artist, have related it solely to Eakins's desire for realism, thus divesting the painting of its religious content.
Lloyd Goodrich, for example, considered this illustration of Christ's suffering completely devoid of "religious sentiment" and suggested that Eakins intended it simply as a realist study of the male nude body. As a result, art historians have frequently associated 'Crucifixion' like Swimming with Eakins's strong interest in anatomy and the nude. In his later years Eakins persistently asked his female portrait models to pose in the nude, a practice which would have been all but prohibited in conventional Philadelphia society. Inevitably, his desires were frustrated.
The nature of Eakins' sexuality and its impact on his art is a matter of intense scholarly debate. Strong circumstantial evidence points to Eakins' having been accused of homosexuality during his lifetime, and there is little doubt that he was attracted to men, [77] as evidenced in his photography, and three major paintings where male buttocks are a focal point: The Gross Clinic , Salutat , and The Swimming Hole. The latter, in which Eakins appears, is increasingly seen as sensuous and autobiographical.
Until recently, major Eakins scholars persistently denied he was homosexual, and such discussion was marginalized. The search tool is currently the primary method for researching our collection. Searching will help you find images throughout the site if they are not highlighted in the boxes below.
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